Biblical Instrumentarium

Biblical data abounds in the way of how music was performed at those times, however this seems to conflict with the more than meagre archaeological findings[2]. However some instruments are known to be used in the Temple of Salomon.

Figure: Coins from the Bar-Kochba revolt period.

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Shofar

The Biblical ``horn''. It is played in a very specific and religiously meaningful way. It may be considered the instrument who was always present in the Jewish liturgy. Its role was symbolical more than ``musical'' in the sense that the patterns performed by the shofar have very precise meanings and they are always to be played as such, this is no ``musical performance'' but a religious act. Music as it is commonly understood is made actually by vocals.

Other instruments

There are conflicting reports on the use of instruments in the traditional Synagogue services. Some reliable sources ...cite... indicate that some ``orchestra'' was in use in the Temple of Salomon and the usage of instruments has been banned only later, around middle-ages. Some instruments, specially percussion, worth mentionning[2]^3.6:

• Ási beroshim: Wood clappers. Modern studies interpret it as a cypress-wood clapper. Evidence exists for the use of bone clappers in the shape of the head of the goddess Hathor in Canaan in the late Bronze Age, and it is probable that clappers made of the widespread local cypress were used for ritual and pararitual mass events during the period of the Kings (10th–8th centuries bce).
• Halil: It is commonly translated as ``flute'' but it may also be a double or single-reed instrument. This view is closer to the talmudic literature (Mishnah, Arakhin ii.3), and to the modern musicology (Sachs, 1940; Bayer, 1968; Marcuse, 1975). However some scholars, following the Jerusalem Talmud (Sukkah 55b), use it as a collective term for wind instruments (Gerson-Kiwi, 1957; Sendrey, 1969).

  The instrument is mentionned to be used for rejoicings as well as lamentations. Talmudic texts indicate that the halil was made of reed (Mishnah, ‘Arakhin ii.3) or bone (Mishnah, Kelim iii.6). Some archaeological findings shows that it may be sometimes plated with copper or bronze.

• Hassrah: A kind of trumpet. Unlike the shofar the hassrah had an everyday use as attested by the post-biblical literature (Mishnah, Rosh ha-shanah iii.3) and the apocalyptic Qumran scroll ``The War of the Sons of Light against the Sons of Darkness'' (1QM ii.15–iii.11 and vii.1–ix.9), it had also a war-like function.(Seidel, 1956–7). For those occasions the played was depicted as ``long, drawn-out tone'', a ``sharp, blaring tone'', and a ``great warlike noise''. The shofar and hassrah should not be confused in the interpretation of their significance and symbolism. while the hassrah was primarily both a ritual instrument and a symbol of sanctioned and institutionalized secular autocratic power, the shofar, have always been considered, from ancient times, an instrument with magic and mystical theophanic connotations.

• Kinnor: A lyre as confirmed by archaeological evidence. The are numerous descriptions of lyres dating from the biblical epochs in ancient Israel/Palestine. The lyres of ancient Israel/Palestine constitute a distinct group within southern Levantine musical culture (Dever, 1997) with regard to both social context and performing practice. This instrument was used in both secular and liturgical functions

  Figure: Lyres on coins from the bar Kochba revolt.

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• Menánem: A pottery rattle. Archaeological finds have provided over 70 intact specimens of such percussion instruments of Israelite/Palestinian origin. Most have been found in tombs and can be regarded as ritual instruments.

• Mesltayim and slslim: Cymbals and related instruments. The slslim (plural), is possibly a metal rattling instrument, appearing in the Old Testament long before mesltayim in a scene imbued with pagan frenzy and describing the carrying of the Ark in procession (2 Samuel vi.5); it is then replacedby the mesltayim in the parallel passage in 1 Chronicles xiii.8. The instruments are also called slslei-shama (sounding slslim) and slslei teru‘ah (clashing slslim) (Psalm cl.5).

  Various cymbals constitute a large set of archaeological findings: at least 28 finds, with diameters of 7–12 and 3–6 cm, have been discovered in 14 cities of ancient Israel/Palestine. They are slightly vaulted discs with a small metal loop at the centre and give a loud and resonant sound.

  Figure: ``Praise Him with melodic cymbals, praise Him with clanging cymbals'' - Psalm 150:5

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• Nebel: Similar to the kinnor As the nebel seems to have had 12 strings and was played with the fingers (Josephus, vii.12.3) rather than a plectrum, one may suppose it has more bass. Interestingly the Mishnah limits the numbers of nebel instruments used in divine worship (two to six) by comparision with the numbers of kinnor instruments (no less than nine, and with no upward limit; Mishnah, ‘Arakhin ii.5). The strings of the nebel were made of thick gut and those of the kinnor of thin gut (Mishnah, Qinnim iii.6); the sound of the nebel could be loud and noisy (Isaiah xiv.11). This supports my assumptin that the nebel could be a bass, plucked string instrument.

  Figure: Biblical Harp: Nebel reproduced on coins from the bar Kochba revolt period

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• Paámon: Jingles and bells which are mentioned in connection with the high priest's purple robe. This sound ``shall be heard when he goes into the holy place before the Lord, and when he comes out, lest he die'' (Exodus xxviii.35). It is confirmed by archeological findings that bells were attached to cloth (see Braun, MGG2, ‘Biblische Musikinstrumente’, Abb.8b), and recently a depiction of bells on the robe of Aaron was discovered in a mosaic from the Sepphoris synagogue (5th century ce; Weiss and Netzer, 1996, p.20).
• Qeren ha-yovel: The Hebrew term qeren (‘’) occurs only once in the sense of a musical instrument: In the mythical tale of the destruction of the Wall of Jericho at the blowing of the qeren ha-yovel (ram's horn) the term ``animal's horn'' appears only once as a musical instrument. Can be considered as a synonym for shofar ha-yovelits sense is amplified by the term yovel: ``jubilee'', ``leader''.
• Tof : Turkish: tef or def; tambourine. Often played by women this is non-liturgical instrument sometimes found in orgiastic depictions
• ‘Ugav: Its origins come from a term denoting a musical instrument like a pipe, bagpipe, lute or harp...However there is no archoelogical evidence to better describe it. The only plausible interpretation seems to be the onomatopoeic effect of the word (u-u), typical of flutes and pipes. The connotations of love attached to the instrument suggest that it was a long end-blown flute of the kind found in neighbouring cultures. The ney can be a close approximation of it.

The instruments of ``Daniel''

Written around 167–164 BCE, The Book of Daniel cites in several places a group of musical instruments, sometimes called the Nebuchadnezzar Orchestra, names of the musical instruments are given in a mixture of Greek, Aramaic and Hebrew. The nstruments cited are among the ones above.

The phrase ``ve-khol zenei zemara'', can be strictly translated as ``the whole ensemble, and other kinds of singing-songs of praise with instrumental music''.